{"id":616,"date":"2019-06-15T11:11:14","date_gmt":"2019-06-15T15:11:14","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/?page_id=616"},"modified":"2026-02-06T16:53:55","modified_gmt":"2026-02-06T21:53:55","slug":"digital-influence-warfare","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/index.php\/books\/digital-influence-warfare\/","title":{"rendered":"Digital Influence Warfare in the Age of Social Media"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/products.abc-clio.com\/ABC-CLIOCorporate\/product.aspx?pc=A6038C\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"678\" height=\"1024\" src=\"http:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/06\/DIW-Cover-Final-678x1024.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-617\" style=\"width:339px;height:512px\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/06\/DIW-Cover-Final-678x1024.jpg 678w, https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/06\/DIW-Cover-Final-199x300.jpg 199w, https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/06\/DIW-Cover-Final-768x1160.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/06\/DIW-Cover-Final.jpg 1838w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 678px) 100vw, 678px\" \/><\/a><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p><strong>BOOK REVIEWS<\/strong>: <\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/483164.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>Click here<\/strong><\/a> for a review published in <em>The Library Quarterly<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>A review published in the <em>Journal of Strategic Security<\/em> is available at the following link: <a href=\"https:\/\/digitalcommons.usf.edu\/jss\/vol15\/iss3\/8\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>https:\/\/digitalcommons.usf.edu\/jss\/vol15\/iss3\/8\/<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Summary:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In <em>Digital Influence Warfare in the Age of Social Media<\/em>, a lifelong educator and security studies researcher explores how our perceptions and behavior are being influenced online, particularly via social media platforms. Particular attention is focused on efforts to deceive and disinform, provoke suspicion and distrust, and exploit the vulnerabilities of a democratic society. The book describes the strategies, tactics and tools used to persuade and influence a target audience, providing numerous examples involving governments (including Russia, China, Iran and Turkey) and non-state actors (from digital influence mercenaries to anti-science activists, conspiracy theorists, domestic extremists and foreign terrorists). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-left\"><strong><em>This book brings together three dimensions of our everyday lives:<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Digital<\/strong>:&nbsp; The online\necosystem of information providers and tools, from websites, blogs, discussion\nforums and targeted e-mail campaigns to social media, video streaming and\nvirtual reality.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Influence<\/strong>: Drawing from decades of research in psychology, marketing, sociology and other disciplines, we have learned the most effective ways an information provider can persuade other people, to shape their beliefs in ways that lead them to embrace one perspective and reject others.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Warfare<\/strong>: The battlefield is you, and the wars are won by the information and disinformation providers who are able to influence your behavior in ways they find beneficial to their political, social or other goals. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-file\"><a id=\"wp-block-file--media-fcdf87cb-6ee2-41ec-b64d-36d3926c7818\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/DIW_Chapter1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Chapter 1 and Frontmatter<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/DIW_Chapter1.pdf\" class=\"wp-block-file__button wp-element-button\" download aria-describedby=\"wp-block-file--media-fcdf87cb-6ee2-41ec-b64d-36d3926c7818\">Download<\/a><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-file\"><a id=\"wp-block-file--media-4c51b2cf-c9a6-4f2c-9b8c-8b7a825c538d\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/DIW-Glossary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Glossary of Terms (PDF)<\/a><a href=\"http:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/DIW-Glossary.pdf\" class=\"wp-block-file__button wp-element-button\" download aria-describedby=\"wp-block-file--media-4c51b2cf-c9a6-4f2c-9b8c-8b7a825c538d\">Download<\/a><\/div>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Click any of the links below to order your copy:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong><a aria-label=\"Praeger\/ABC\/CLIO Publishers (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.abc-clio.com\/ABC-CLIOCorporate\/product.aspx?pc=A6038C\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Praeger\/ABC\/CLIO Publishers<\/a><\/strong> <\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Digital-Influence-Warfare-Security-International\/dp\/1440870098\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Amazon<\/a> <\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/www.barnesandnoble.com\/w\/digital-influence-warfare-in-the-age-of-social-media-james-j-f-forest\/1136403555\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Barnes &amp; Noble<\/a> <\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\"><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Chapters of the book examine social psychology, cognitive bias, influence silos, post-truth narratives, fabricating &#8220;alternate facts&#8221;, provocation and disinformation within the context of various political, scientific, security and societal debates. The discussion also addresses the economic forces of supply and demand that have led to the rise of &#8220;digital influence mercenaries&#8221;, and implications for the future of democratic societies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"720\" height=\"540\" src=\"http:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/Fig2.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-683\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/Fig2.jpg 720w, https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/Fig2-300x225.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 720px) 100vw, 720px\" \/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\"><strong>See below for links to a sample collection of relevant <\/strong><br><strong>supporting materials from the chapters of <em>DIW<\/em>:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Use <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"http:\/\/botsentinel.com\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><strong>Bot Sentinel<\/strong><\/span><\/a> to check whether a Twitter account is real or fake<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Facebook <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/help\/188118808357379\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">guidelines for how users can spot fake news<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 U.S. Election, Volume 5: Counterintelligence Threats and Vulnerabilities.<\/em> Report of the Senate Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate (August 2020). Online at: <a href=\"https:\/\/intelligence.senate.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/documents\/report_volume5.pdf\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">https:\/\/intelligence.senate.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/documents\/report_volume5.pdf<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Atlantic Council Digital Forensic Research Lab, &#8220;Confronting the Threat of Disinformation: The Problem,&#8221;\u009d Google Jigsaw Data Visualizer (February 2020). Online at: <a href=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.google.com\/the-current\/disinformation\/dataviz\/\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">https:\/\/jigsaw.google.com\/the-current\/disinformation\/dataviz\/<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Ben Nimmo, Camille Francois, C. Shawn Eib, et al, &#8220;GRU and the Minions,&#8221; <em>Graphika<\/em> (September 2020). Online at: <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/graphika.com\/reports\/gru-and-the-minions\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/graphika.com\/reports\/gru-and-the-minions\/<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>(PDF) <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/media.wiley.com\/product_data\/excerpt\/80\/14443312\/1444331280-16.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Arie W. Kruglanski and Edward Orehek, &#8220;The Need for Certainty as a Psychological Nexus for Individuals and Society,&#8221; in Michael Hogg and Danielle Blaylock (eds.) <em>Extremism and the Psychology of Uncertainty<\/em> (Malden, MA: Wiley, 2012)<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Instagram and WhatsApp are the platforms to worry about before the 2020 election, (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/f\/614255\/instagram-whatsapp-disinformation-2020-presidential-election-politics-technology-facebook\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Instagram and WhatsApp are the platforms to worry about before the 2020 election<\/span>,<\/a>&#8221; <em>Technology Review<\/em> (September 3, 2019)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/botometer.iuni.iu.edu\/#!\/\" target=\"_blank\"><strong><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Botometer<\/span><\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Diego Martin and Jacob Shapiro, <em><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/scholar.princeton.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/jns\/files\/trends_in_foreign_influence_efforts_2019jul08_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Trends in Online Foreign Influence Efforts<\/span><\/a><\/em><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"> <\/span>(July 8, 2019). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Disinfo Cloud \/ Global Engagement Center: <a href=\"https:\/\/disinfocloud.com\/blog\/isd-toolkit-detectingdisinfo\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">An Introductory Guide to Detecting Disinformation<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/help.twitter.com\/en\/rules-and-policies\/platform-manipulation\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Twitter policy on platform manipulation and spam<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Dorothy Denning, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.rand.org\/content\/dam\/rand\/pubs\/monograph_reports\/MR1382\/MR1382.ch8.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Activism, Hacktivism, and Cyberterrorism: the Internet As a Tool for Influencing Foreign Policy<\/span><\/a>.&#8221; in <em>Networks and Netwar,<\/em> (RAND, 2001). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mike McIntire, Karen Yourish and Larry Buchanan, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"In Trump\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s Twitter Feed: Conspiracy-Mongers, Racists and Spies, (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2019\/11\/02\/us\/politics\/trump-twitter-disinformation.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">In Trump&#8217;s Twitter Feed: Conspiracy-Mongers, Racists and Spies,<\/span><\/a>&#8221; <em>The New York Times <\/em>(November 2, 2019)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Shruti Agarwal, Hany Farid, et al. &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Protecting World Leaders Against Deep Fakes (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"http:\/\/openaccess.thecvf.com\/content_CVPRW_2019\/papers\/Media%20Forensics\/Agarwal_Protecting_World_Leaders_Against_Deep_Fakes_CVPRW_2019_paper.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Protecting World Leaders Against Deep Fakes<\/span><\/a>.&#8221; IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) Workshops, 2019, pp. 38-45.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Preslav Nakov, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"New Tech Aims to Help Societies Learn to Spot Fake News (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.defenseone.com\/ideas\/2019\/10\/new-technologies-seek-highlight-objectively-fake-news\/160587\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">New Tech Aims to Help Societies Learn to Spot Fake News<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; <em>Defense One<\/em> (October 14, 2019). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"FirstDraft\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s Essential Guide to Verifying Online Information (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/firstdraftnews.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/10\/Verifying_Online_Information_Digital_AW.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">FirstDraft&#8217;s Essential Guide to Verifying Online Information<\/span><\/a> (October, 2019). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>University of Cambridge, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Fake News \u00e2\u20ac\u02dcVaccine\u00e2\u20ac\u2122 works: \u00e2\u20ac\u02dcPre-bunking\u00e2\u20ac\u2122 game reduces susceptibility to disinformation (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2019\/06\/190624204800.htm\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Fake News &#8216;Vaccine&#8217; works: &#8216;Pre-bunking&#8217; game reduces susceptibility to disinformation<\/span><\/a><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><\/span>.&#8221;\u009d <em>Science Daily<\/em> (June 24, 2019).  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><em><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Bad News Game (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"http:\/\/getbadnews.com\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Bad News Game<\/span><\/a><\/em><\/strong> &#8211; Your task is to get as many followers as you can while slowly building up fake credibility as a news site. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Lists of <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_fake_news_websites\" target=\"_blank\">fake news media outlets<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Patrick Tucker, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"How to Inoculate the Public Against Fake News (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.defenseone.com\/technology\/2018\/02\/how-inoculate-public-against-fake-news\/146092\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">How to Inoculate the Public Against Fake News<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; <em>Defense One<\/em> (February 19, 2018)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Carlotta Dotto and Sebatien Cubbon, &#8220;How to spot a bot (or not): The main indicators of online automation, co-ordination and inauthentic activity,&#8221; FirstDraft (November 28, 2019). Online at: <a href=\"https:\/\/firstdraftnews.org\/latest\/how-to-spot-a-bot-or-not-the-main-indicators-of-online-automation-co-ordination-and-inauthentic-activity\">https:\/\/firstdraftnews.org\/latest\/how-to-spot-a-bot-or-not-the-main-indicators-of-online-automation-co-ordination-and-inauthentic-activity<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Christopher Costa and Joshua Geltzer, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"To Fight Disinformation, Rethink&nbsp;Counterintelligence (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.defenseone.com\/ideas\/2019\/10\/fight-disinformation-rethink-counterintelligence\/160582\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">To Fight Disinformation, Rethink&nbsp;Counterintelligence<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; <em>Defense One<\/em> (October 14, 2019). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Davey Alba and Adam Satariano, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"At Least 70 Counties Have Had Disinformation Campaigns, Study Finds (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/09\/26\/technology\/government-disinformation-cyber-troops.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">At Least 70 Countries Have Had Disinformation Campaigns, Study Finds<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; <em>New York Times<\/em> (Sept. 26, 2019)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/podcasts.apple.com\/us\/podcast\/conspiracyland\/id1471037693\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\"><\/span><\/a>Paul M. Barrett. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Disinformation and the 2020 Election: How the Social Media Industry Should Prepare (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.stern.nyu.edu\/experience-stern\/faculty-research\/disinformation-and-2020-election-how-social-media-industry-should-prepare\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Disinformation and the 2020 Election: How the Social Media Industry Should Prepare<\/span><\/a>. NYU Stern Center for Business and Human Rights, September 2019<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.darpa.mil\/program\/media-forensics\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Media Forensics program at the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Renee DiResta, Kris Shaffer, et al. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"The Tactics &amp; Tropes of the Internet Research Agency (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/disinformationreport.blob.core.windows.net\/disinformation-report\/NewKnowledge-Disinformation-Report-Whitepaper.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">The Tactics &amp; Tropes of the Internet Research Agency<\/span><\/a>. New Knowledge, Tow Center for Digital Journalism, and Canfield Research. 2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Fake News: BBC and Tech Firms join forces to fight disinformation (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/technology-49615771\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Fake News: BBC and Tech Firms join forces to fight disinformation<\/span><\/a>.&#8221;\u009d <em>BBC News<\/em> (September 7, 2019).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Piret Pernik, <em><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/icds.ee\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/05\/ICDS_Analysis_Hacking_for_Influence_Piret_Pernik_February_2018.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Hacking for Influence: Foreign Influence Activities and Cyber-Attacks<\/span><\/a><\/em> (February 2018). RKK International Center for Defense and Security, Estonia<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Michael J. Mazarr, Abigail Casey et al. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Hostile Social Manipulation: Present Realities and Emerging Trends (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.rand.org\/pubs\/research_reports\/RR2713.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Hostile Social Manipulation: Present Realities and Emerging Trends<\/span><\/a>. RAND Corp, September 2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Will Knight, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"The world\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s top deepfake artist is wrestling with the monster he created (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/614083\/the-worlds-top-deepfake-artist-is-wrestling-with-the-monster-he-created\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">The world&#8217;s top deepfake artist is wrestling with the monster he created<\/span><\/a>.&#8221; <em>Technology Review <\/em>(August 16, 2019)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Jean-Baptiste J. Vilmer, et al. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.diplomatie.gouv.fr\/IMG\/pdf\/information_manipulation_rvb_cle838736.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Information Manipulation: A Challenge for our Democracies. A Report by the Policy Planning Staff<\/span><\/a> (CAPS, Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs) and Institute for Strategic Research (IRSEM, Ministry for the Armed Forces), Republic of France, Paris. August, 2018.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>J.M. Berger, <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.historyextra.com\/period\/roman\/extremism-history-examples-explained-definition-facts-prevent-right-wing-religious\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">A Brief History of Extremism, From Ancient Rome to al Qaeda<\/span> <\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Joshua Tucker et al., &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hewlett.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/Social-Media-Political-Polarization-and-Political-Disinformation-Literature-Review.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Social Media Political Polarization and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature<\/span><\/a>&#8221; (Hewlett Foundation, March 2018)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Philip N. Howard, Bharath Ganesh, et al. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"The IRA, Social Media and Political Polarization in the United States, 2012-2018 (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk\/research\/ira-political-polarization\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">The IRA, Social Media and Political Polarization in the United States, 2012-2018<\/span><\/a>. Computational Propaganda Research Project, University of Oxford, 2019. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><em><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"United States of America v. Internet Research Agency LLC a\/k\/a\/ Mediasintez LLC et al  (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/file\/1035477\/download\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">United States of America v. Internet Research Agency LLC a\/k\/a\/ Mediasintez LLC et al<\/span> <\/a><\/em>(Federal indictment filed 2\/26\/18 in United States District Court or the District of Columbia). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>David Byrne, <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"http:\/\/davidbyrne.com\/journal\/the-echo-chamber\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">The Echo Chamber<\/span><\/a> (2016)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/podcasts.apple.com\/us\/podcast\/conspiracyland\/id1471037693\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Conspiracyland<\/span><\/a> (Podcast) episodes, by Michael Isikoff<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>FBI Intelligence Bulletin: &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Conspiracy Theories Very Likely Motivate Some Domestic Extremists (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/info.publicintelligence.net\/FBI-ConspiracyTheoryDomesticExtremism.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Conspiracy Theories Very Likely Motivate Some Domestic Extremists<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; Phoenix Field Office (May 30, 2019)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>United States Senate, 116<sup>th<\/sup> Congress. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Report of the Senate Committee on Intelligence on Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 Election (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.intelligence.senate.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/documents\/Report_Volume1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">R<span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">eport of the Senate Committee on Intelligence on Russian Active Measures Campaigns and Interference in the 2016 Election<\/span><\/a>, Volume 1 (Report 116-XX).  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Samuel C. Woolley and Douglas R. Guilbeault, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"http:\/\/comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/89\/2017\/06\/Comprop-USA.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Computational Propaganda in the United States of America: Manufacturing Consensus Online<\/span><\/a><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">,<\/span>&#8220;\u009d  University of Oxford, Computational Propaganda Research Project, Working Paper No. 2017.5<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Zac Rogers, Emily Bienvenue, and Maryanne Kelton, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"The New Age of Propaganda: Understanding Influence Operations in the Digital Age (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/warontherocks.com\/2019\/05\/the-new-age-of-propaganda-understanding-influence-operations-in-the-digital-age\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">The New Age of Propaganda: Understanding Influence Operations in the Digital Age<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; <em>War on the Rocks<\/em> (May 1, 2019)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hannah Murphy, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/70b86214-9e77-11e9-9c06-a4640c9feebb\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Inside Facebook\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s Information Warfare Team<\/span><\/a>,&#8221;\u009d Financial Times (July 5, 2019). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gifct.org\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Egor Zakharav, et al. &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1905.08233\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Few-Shot Adversarial Learning of Realistic Neural Talking Head Models<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; Cornell University, Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, arXiv.org (May 20, 2019).  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Samantha Cole, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.vice.com\/en_us\/article\/qv7zkw\/create-fake-videos-of-faces-samsung-ai-labs-algorithm\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">It\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s Getting Way Too Easy to Create Fake Videos of People&#8217;s Faces<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; <em>Motherboard\/Tech by Vice<\/em> (May 23, 2019) <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Examples of <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"realistic Instagram memes created by powerful computer graphics equipment combined with Artificial Intelligence (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.instagram.com\/the_fakening\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">realistic Instagram memes created by powerful computer graphics equipment combined with Artificial Intelligence<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The Institute for Strategic Dialogue, <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.isdglobal.org\/isd-publications\/interim-briefing-propaganda-and-digital-campaigning-in-the-eu-elections\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Interim Briefing: Propaganda and Digital Campaigning in the EU Elections<\/span><\/a> (London: ISD, 2019).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kate Conger and Jack Nicas, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/09\/06\/technology\/twitter-alex-jones-infowars.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Twitter Bars Alex Jones and Infowars, Citing Harassing Messages<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; <em>The New York Times<\/em> (Sept. 6, 2018).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Paul M. Barrett. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Tackling Domestic Disinformation: What the Social Media Companies Need to Do (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nyu.edu\/about\/news-publications\/news\/2019\/april\/tackling-domestic-disinformation--what-the-social-media-companie.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Tackling Domestic Disinformation: What the Social Media Companies Need to Do<\/span><\/a>. NYU Stern Center for Business and Human Rights, March 2019<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Abby Noman, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/futurism.com\/welcome-age-digital-warfare\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Welcome to the Age of Digital Warfare<\/span><\/a><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">,<\/span>&#8221; <em>Futurism<\/em> (December 8, 2017)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Jen Weedon, William Nuland and Alex Stamos. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"&quot;Information Operations and Facebook&quot; (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/fbnewsroomus.files.wordpress.com\/2017\/04\/facebook-and-information-operations-v1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">&#8220;Information Operations and Faceb<\/span>ook&#8221;<\/a> (Facebook, 2017)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Naomi Orekes and Erik M. Conway, <em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.merchantsofdoubt.org\/home\/key-documents\/\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming<\/span><\/a><\/em> (Key Documents) <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Karen Douglas, et al. &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/crestresearch.ac.uk\/news\/how-are-conspiracy-theories-adopted-and-what-are-their-risks\/\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Why Do People Adopt Conspiracy Theories, How Are They Communicated, and What Are Their Risks<\/span><\/a>&#8221; CREST Research, UK (multiple project reports, 2019)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Facebook &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/transparency.facebook.com\/community-standards-enforcement#hate-speech\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Community Standards Enforcement<\/span><\/a>&#8221; reports <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mike Isaac and Kevin Roose, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/05\/02\/technology\/facebook-alex-jones-louis-farrakhan-ban.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Facebook Bars Alex Jones, Louis Farrakhan and Others from its Services<\/span><\/a>,&#8221;\u009d <em>The New York Times<\/em> (May 2, 2019).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Enrique Dans, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/medium.com\/enrique-dans\/stopping-fake-news-through-technology-f8151ee7a642\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Stopping Fake News Through Technology<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; <em>Medium, <\/em>(Feb. 11, 2017).  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Will Knight, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Fake American Great Again: Inside the race to catch the worryingly real fakes that can be made using artificial intelligence (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/611810\/fake-america-great-again\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Fake American Great Again: Inside the race to catch the worryingly real fakes that can be made using artificial intelligence<\/span><\/a>.&#8221;<em>Technology Review<\/em> (August 17, 2018).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Collin Crowell, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Our Approach to Bots &amp; Misinformation (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.twitter.com\/official\/en_us\/topics\/company\/2017\/Our-Approach-Bots-Misinformation.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Our Approach to Bots &amp; Misinformation<\/span><\/a>&#8221; (Twitter, June 14, 2017)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>John Arquilla and David Ronfeld, <em><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.rand.org\/pubs\/monograph_reports\/MR1382.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Networks and Netwars<\/span><\/a> <\/em>(Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2001 <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cliff Kincaid, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"How Putin Uses KGB-style \u00e2\u20ac\u02dcActive Measures\u00e2\u20ac\u2122 (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aim.org\/aim-column\/how-putin-uses-kgb-style-active-measures\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">How Putin Uses KGB-style &#8216;Active Measures&#8217;<\/span><\/a>,&#8221;\u009d <em>Accuracy in Media<\/em> (April 9, 2014)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Chinese Cyberattack Hits Telegram, App Used by Hong Kong Protesters (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/06\/13\/world\/asia\/hong-kong-telegram-protests.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Chinese Cyberattack Hits Telegram, App Used by Hong Kong Protesters<\/span><\/a>, <em>New York Times<\/em> (June 13, 2019)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Amy Gunia, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"http:\/\/time.com\/5589478\/facebook-tightens-live-stream-rules-in-response-to-the-christchurch-massacre\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Facebook Tightens Live-Stream Rules in Response to the Christchurch Massacre<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; Time (May 15, 2019).  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Greg Miller and Souad Mekhennet, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Inside the Surreal World of the Islamic State\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s Propaganda Machine (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.chicagotribune.com\/nation-world\/ct-islamic-state-propaganda-machine-20151121-story.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Inside the Surreal World of the Islamic State&#8217;s Propaganda Machine<\/span><\/a>,&#8221;\u009d Washington Post&nbsp;(November 20, 2015)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Andy Greenberg, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/jigsaw-russia-disinformation-social-media-stalin-alphabet\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Alphabet-Owned Jigsaw Bought a Russian Troll Campaign as an Experiment<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; <em>Wired<\/em> (June 12, 2019) <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Joseph G. Lehman, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mackinac.org\/12481\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">An Introduction to the Overton Window of Political Possibility<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; Mackinac Center for Public Policy, April 8, 2010. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Craig Silverman, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.buzzfeed.com\/craigsilverman\/viral-fake-election-newsoutperformed-real-news-on-facebook\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">This Analysis Shows How Viral Fake Election News Stories Outperformed Real News on Facebook<\/span>,<\/a>&#8220;\u009d BuzzFeed News , November 16, 2016 <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Matt Apuzzo and Adam Satariano, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/05\/12\/world\/europe\/russian-propaganda-influence-campaign-european-elections-far-right.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Russia is Targeting Europe&#8217;s Elections. So are Far-Right Copycats<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; <em>New York Times<\/em> (May 12, 2019). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Robert Faris et al., &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/dash.harvard.edu\/handle\/1\/33759251\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Partisanship, Propaganda, and Disinformation: Online Media and the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society, Harvard University, August 2017  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Aja Romano, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.vox.com\/culture\/2019\/3\/16\/18266930\/christchurch-shooter-manifesto-memes-subscribe-to-pewdiepie\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">How the Christchurch shooter used memes to spread hate<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; Vox (March 16, 2019). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p> &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cbsnews.com\/video\/isis-video-shows-jordanian-pilot-being-burned-to-death\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">ISIS Video shows Jordanian pilot being burned<\/span><\/a>&#8220;\u009d <em>CBS News<\/em> (February 3, 2015). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Gregory Waters and Robert Postings. <em><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.counterextremism.com\/sites\/default\/files\/Spiders%20of%20the%20Caliphate%20%28May%202018%29.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Spiders of the Caliphate: Mapping the Islamic State&#8217;s Global Support Network on Facebook<\/span><\/a><\/em> (May 2018). Counter Extremism Project. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Dr. Celeste Wallander, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.policypunchline.com\/episodes\/2019\/3\/30\/us-russia-relations-after-the-mueller-report-salami-tactics-and-putins-revisionist-dream\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">US-Russia Relations After the Mueller Report: &#8216;Salami Tactics&#8217;\u009d and Putin&#8217;s Revisionist Dream<\/span><\/a>&#8221; (interview March 30, 2019).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kevin Roose and Kate Conger, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2019\/06\/05\/business\/youtube-remove-extremist-videos.html\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">YouTube to Remove Thousands of videos Pushing Extreme Views<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; <em>The New York Times<\/em> (June 5, 2019).  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Claire Wardle, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cjr.org\/tow_center\/6_types_election_fake_news.php\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">6 Types of Misinformation circulated this election season<\/span><\/a>,&#8221;\u009d <em>Columbia Journalism Review<\/em>, November 18, 2016 <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/blogs-trending-42724320\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">The (almost) complete history of &#8216;fake news<\/span>,&#8217;<\/a>&#8221; <em>BBC Trending <\/em>(January 22, 2018).  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Samantha Cole, &#8220;<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.vice.com\/en_us\/article\/qv7zmx\/deepfakes-nancy-pelosi-fake-video-trump-tweet\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Americans Don&#8217;t Need Deepfakes to Believe Lies About Nancy Pelosi<\/span><\/a>,&#8221; Motherboard\/Tech by Vice (May 24, 2019). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Andrea Berger, et al. <em><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nonproliferation.org\/op36-the-shadow-sector-north-koreas-information-technology-networks\/\" target=\"_blank\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">Op#36: The Shadow Sector: North Korea&#8217;s Information Technology Networks<\/span>.<\/a><\/em> (May 7, 2018). James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, Middlebury Institute for International Studies at Monterey. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>About the Author:<\/strong> <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\" (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Dr. James J.F. Forest<\/a> is a Professor at the <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"UMass Lowell School of Criminology &amp; Justice Studies (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/www.uml.edu\/FAHSS\/criminal-justice\/\" target=\"_blank\">University of Massachusetts Lowell School of Criminology &amp; Justice Studies<\/a>, and a Visiting Professor at the <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"Tuft University Fletcher School of Law &amp; Diplomacy (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/fletcher.tufts.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\">Tufts University Fletcher School of Law &amp; Diplomacy<\/a>. He is also co-editor of the journal <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.universiteitleiden.nl\/perspectives-on-terrorism\" target=\"_blank\"><em>Perspectives on Terrorism<\/em><\/a> and has previously served as a Senior Fellow at the <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" aria-label=\"U.S. Joint Special Operations University (opens in a new tab)\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joint_Special_Operations_University\" target=\"_blank\">U.S. Joint Special Operations University<\/a>, and as a Director of Terrorism Studies at at the <a href=\"https:\/\/ctc.usma.edu\/\">U.S. Military Academy, West Point<\/a>.  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<div data-wp-interactive=\"core\/file\" class=\"wp-block-file\"><object data-wp-bind--hidden=\"!state.hasPdfPreview\" hidden class=\"wp-block-file__embed\" data=\"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/483164.pdf\" type=\"application\/pdf\" style=\"width:100%;height:600px\" aria-label=\"Embed of 483164.\"><\/object><a id=\"wp-block-file--media-7019b8d0-3982-4990-a112-89a94e3557d4\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/483164.pdf\">483164<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/483164.pdf\" class=\"wp-block-file__button wp-element-button\" download aria-describedby=\"wp-block-file--media-7019b8d0-3982-4990-a112-89a94e3557d4\">Download<\/a><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>BOOK REVIEWS: Summary: In Digital Influence Warfare in the Age of Social Media, a lifelong educator and security studies researcher explores how our perceptions and behavior are being influenced online, particularly via social media platforms. Particular attention is focused on efforts to deceive and disinform, provoke suspicion and distrust, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/index.php\/books\/digital-influence-warfare\/\" class=\"btn btn-link continue-link\">Continue Reading<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":4,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-616","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/616","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=616"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/616\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.jamesforest.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=616"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}